Wireless telecommunication + matlab program Assignment

Wireless telecommunication + matlab program - Assignment Example Then Angle modulation is discussed with its two types i.e. frequency modulation and phase Modulation. Advantages and disadvantages of each technique are discussed. Generation of modulated signals is also discussed briefly along with useful equations and figures. In the end an appendix is presented in which MATLAB program is presented for Amplitude Modulation with the snapshot of the resulting graphs of signals. A similar program for Frequency Modulation is presented with resulting graphs of signals. In today’s communication, wireless communication has become the main area for researchers and has become an industry and also the governments of different countries are interested in it as wireless sensors have an enormous range of both commercial and military applications. Commercial applications include monitoring of fire hazards, stress and strain in building, carbon dioxide movement and gases at a disaster side. Military application includes identification and tracking of enemies target, direction of chemical and biological attacks, support of unmanned robotic vehicles, and counter-terrorism. There are many factors of growing of this field. One of which is the tremendous increase in demand for tether less connectivity, driven so far mainly by cellular telephony but is expected to be soon eclipsed by wireless data applications. Wireless communication has also captured the attention of media and imagination of the public. Not only this, the Cellular systems have experienced exponential growth over last decade and there are currently about two billion subscribers around the world and cellular phones have become critical business tool and part of everyday life and are rapidly replacing the wired systems in many developing countries. In addition, wireless local area networks are currently replacing the wired networks in many homes, businesses and campuses. This is because by using wireless things it is easy to move and to get

Successfull retention tools of American Businesses Term Paper

Successfull retention tools of American Businesses - Term Paper Example It is also costly to the company. Labor turnover and attrition is costly not only in terms of resources but also in precious time of training new employees. It will take time until a new employee will be able to yield the same output like the one that has left and it is also is an opportunity lost to the company. It may be tempting to disregard a company’s retention program because rewards incur cost. But it has to be kept whatever the economic circumstances because in the final analysis, the cost of rewards is more than justified considering the opportunity cost of losing an organization’s best talent (Frasch, 201). It is worth noting that at the aftermath of the recent financial crisis, the survey conducted by Nashville, Tennessee based OI Partners found that an alarming 64 percent of companies â€Å"are concerned that they may lose managers when the job market improves† and that includes a 48 % likelihood of losing their executives (Frash, 2011). Such, a revisit on the successful tools of retaining best talents in an organization would be necessary to prevent the likelihood of an impending labor turnover. Given with the changing economic landscape brought by the recent crisis, it is becoming difficult for companies to financially reward their employees because of financial constraints. Many are even cutting wages as a cost cutting measure to weather the recent economic turmoil (O’Hara, 2011). On the other hand, about 65 percent of employees are beginning to be sensitive to pay increase as a motivation for them to stay with their current employer as reflected in the survey from Marlborough, Mass.-based benefits and compensation consultant Workscape (O’Hara, 2011). This economic difficulty however should not prevent companies to strive to keep their best employees. Nor should they disregard because of the costs associated

Physico-Chemical Structure or Bonding Essay Example for Free

Physico-Chemical Structure or Bonding Essay Hydrogen bond is one of the most essential concepts in supramolecular chemistry or molecular sociology. It has significant ramifications on molecular biology and materials science. The term and concept ‘hydrogen bond’ has only emerged after 1930; however the general notion of weak but specific interaction that involves hydrides is much older (Webmaster 2005). Hydrogen bond refers to the attractive force between the hydrogen that has attached to an electronegative atom of a molecule and an electronegative atom of an unlike molecule. It is a special case of dipole forces wherein the electronegative atom is usually an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine—elements that have a partial negative charge, except for hydrogen which possesses a partial positive side (Ophardt c. 2003). Hydrogen bonding happens when two electronegative atoms, for instance nitrogen and oxygen, interact with the same hydrogen. Normally, the hydrogen is covalently attached to an atom which is referred as the donor. But it interacts electrostatically with the other, known as acceptor. The interaction is primarily because of the dipole amid the electronegative atoms and proton (Day 1996). It is the strongest molecular force and passes on some strange properties to a myriad of substances namely water, proteins and nucleotides (Structure and Bonding: The Hydrogen Bond n. d. ). Hydrogen bond is one of the most important components of biological life. If there is no hydrogen bond, there will be no life because it holds the double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) together (Emsley 2000). Hydrogen forms and structures covalent bonds with other molecules to produce and make molecules that are stable than the free atoms. The electron of the hydrogen is shared between the hydrogen and the atom to which it is bonded. The other electron from the bonded atom is also shared between the two (The Structure of DNA n. d. ). It is done through charge attractions. If hydrogen is bonded to oxygen or nitrogen, it evolves to be slightly positive charged. That fact allows the hydrogen bond to attract a center of negative charge on another molecule—it can be another oxygen or another nitrogen atom. Thus the hydrogen bond is written such as O-H=N (= signifies hydrogen bond). There are O-H=O or N-H=O and N-H=N—it is the weakest bond (Emsley 2000). That is the effect of hydrogen bonds on DNA. On the other hand, there is a study that has been conducted by Eric Kool, a professor of Chemistry from the University of Rochester, wherein a finding has been implied that â€Å"hydrogen bonds are not the key to DNA pairing after all† (Bradt 1997). The study suggests that it is more possible that the distinguishing and distinct shapes and sizes of each of the four DNA bases strengthen and suggest the 99. 9 percent accuracy of DNA replication. It has been illustrated like a space in a jigsaw puzzle wherein that space in the puzzle can only be filled by a piece that matches the shape of the space. That analogy means that there is only one base capable of squeezing into a DNA strand on its opposite given partner (Bradt 1997). According to Myron Goodman, a biologist and DNA expert from the University of Southern California, â€Å"the apparently inescapable conclusion is that hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) are not absolutely required,† this means that the results give a momentum and impetus to consider the role that the H-bonds play in stabilizing the DNA and enhancing the fidelity of DNA polymerase (Bradt 1997). Furthermore, there are still a number of factors that are responsible for the stability of the DNA double helix structure. Hydrogen bond is just among them. Although the hydrogen bond is weak, the millions of H-bonds showcase an extremely strong force that enables and keeps the DNA strand together (Rafael B. 2009). List of References Bradt, S. (1997) â€Å"Study: Hydrogen Bonds Aren’t Key to DNA Pairing After All. † Bio-Medicine [online] available from http://news. bio-medicine. org/biology-news-2/Study-3A-Hydrogen-Bonds-Arent-Key-To-DNA-Pairing-After-All-15262-1/ [13 February 2009] Day, A. (1996). â€Å"Hydrogen Bonds. † Birkbeck: University of London [online] available from http://www. cryst. bbk. ac. uk/PPS2/projects/day/TDayDiss/HBonds. html [13 February 2009] Emsley, J. (2000). â€Å"A New Way to Investigate the Hydrogen Bonds of DNA. † Science Watch [online] available from http://archive. sciencewatch. com/sept-oct2000/sw_sept-oct2000_page7. htm [13 February 2009] Ophardt, C. (c. 2003). â€Å"Intermolecular Forces: Hydrogen Bond. † El nhurst College: Virtual Chembook [online] available from http://www. elmhurst. edu/~chm/vchembook/161Ahydrogenbond. html [13 February 2009] Rafael B. (2009) â€Å"DNA Structure: Hydrogen Bonds. † Bright Hub [online] available from http://www. brighthub. com/science/genetics/articles/23384. aspx [13 February 2009] Structure and Bonding: The Hydrogen Bond. n. d. Prince Georges Community College [online] available from http://academic. pgcc. edu/~ssinex/struc_bond/hydrogen_bond. htm [13 February 2009] The Structure of DNA. n. d. Cambridge University [online] available from http://www-outreach. phy. cam. ac. uk/camphy/dna/dna11_1. htm [13 February 2009] Webmaster. (2005). â€Å"The Hydrogen Bond. † Gottingen University [online] available from http://www. hbond. de/ [13 February 2009]

Supervisory Approaches in Education

Supervisory Approaches in Education In this chapter a review of related literature on instructional supervision and its relationship with professional development is provided. The chapter is divided in to four parts as to enable the reader to follow a logical sequence that includes: history of school supervision, overview of supervision approaches, teachers perception of supervisory processes, and the relationship between supervision and professional development. 2.1 History of School Supervision In many developed countries, such as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, much more attention has been given to inspection than school supervision (Lee, Dig Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had originated from France under Napoleons Regime at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801 (Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms inspector and inspection are still being used in various developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007). Traditionally, inspection and supervision were used as important tools to ensure efficiency and accountability in the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and supervision are used by different countries in different ways. As outlined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the assessment and evaluation of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and improvement in their teaching- learning process. Nevertheless, since the demand of teachers for guidance and support rendered from supervisors has increased from time to time, some countries changed the terminology and preferring the term supervisor over that of inspector. According to Grawue (2007), some countries have recently developed more specific terminologies: Malawi, uses education methods advisor, and Uganda teacher development advisor. The concepts of supervision and inspection have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated that: Apart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name changes made we do not notice any significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12) From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management. According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center (Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District (Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at school level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers. However, since the Woreda is the lowest administrative level and had a direct contact with schools, more practical support and guidance are expected from the assigned supervisors at this level. As it is clearly mentioned by the Educational Management, Schools Organization, Finance, and Community Participation Guideline (MoE, 2002), supervisors have the following key responsibilities: Ensuring whether teacher -student relationship is healthy and democratic, teachers are properly executing their tasks, education is based on the needs of students, the relation between schools and community, mobilizing community, ensure the existence of help and respect sprit between teachers and students, provide professional support, follow up and training for teachers. (p. 30-32) 2.2 Overview of Supervisory Approaches According to Blasà © and Blasà © (1998), although many supervisory approaches are collaborative in nature, for long time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) described supervision as a ritual they [supervisors and teachers] participate according to well established scripts without much consequence (p. 203). This author continued that today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education (p. 204). He explained that though functioned for a considerable span of time, this type of supervision caused negative stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled. Supporting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, because of this, teachers are unaccustomed to the sort of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial assistance are coming in to u se (p.1). It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because supervisory authority and control are essential for professional development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000) explained this as much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded (p. 37). Having said this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the former as a formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994; Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning (p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and implement a range of professional growth opportunities designed to meet teachers professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is a summative process that focus on assessing the compete nce of teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individuals professional competence at specific time (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should go hand in hand (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers professional growth, evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003; Wareing, 1990). The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, self-reflection, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso Firth, 1990; Clarke, 1995; Poole, 1994; Reninan, 2002; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers; it is also important to provide choices to the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Each component of supervisory approaches are discussed as follows. Clinical Supervision According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a face- to- face contract with teachers with the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and systematic supervisory process which involves face-to-face interaction between teachers and supervisors designed to improve the teachers classroom instructions (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according to Snow-Gerono (2008) is to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers abilities to be self-supervising (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a specific cycle or pattern of working with teachers (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a partnership in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of supervisor functions more as an individual with experience and insight than as an expert who determines what is right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure o f clinical supervision that includes pre-observation conference, class room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with: inexperienced beginning teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and experienced teachers who are in need of improving their instructional performance. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches collaborate to research their practices and improve their teaching and learning (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers further described that the focus of clinical supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional improvement of the teacher that guarantees quality of teaching and students performance (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Collaborative Supervision Collaboration and collegially are very important in todays modern schools. According to Burke and Fessler (1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching environment with the appropriate support from more experienced colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an ethical and professional responsibility of providing the required type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003). In this regard, a teacher who needs collegial and collaborative support should realize that needs do not exist for professional growth, that feedback from colleagues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward improvement (Burke Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision which are especially needed for beginner or novice teachers are: peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring (Shower s Joyce, 1996; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Sullivan Glanz, 2003; Kutsyuruba, 2003). Peer coaching Peer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is defined as teachers helping teachers reflect on and improve teaching practice and/or implement particular teaching skills needed to implement knowledge gained through faculty or curriculum development (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice and feedback following staff development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, but supportive atmosphere for efficient communication, and involve them in decision making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to develop communities within which teachers collaborate to honor a very simple value- when we learn together, we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively serve our students (p. 251). Thus, peer coaching provid es possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative relationships, participatory decision making, and immediate feedback (Bowman McCormick, 2000; Sullivan Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Cognitive coaching According to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to a nonjudgmental process built around a planning conference, observation, and a reflecting conference (p. 2). Cognitive coaching differs from peer coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described, cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however, when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers further identified three components of cognitive coaching: planning, lesson observation, and reflection. Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely: (1) developing and maintaining trusting relationship; (2) fostering growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior; and (3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and encouraged to reach at a higher level of autonomy- the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze (Garmston, Linder Whitaker, 1993). Mentoring Mentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is a process that facilitates instructional improvement wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff member (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers figure out the school and its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real class rooms (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated the works of mentors as: The mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally studying and deliberating on ways instruction in the class room may be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific area with other educators. Mentors are not judges or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All interactions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213) Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and professional development which serve to augment the succession planning and professional development of teachers (Reiman Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the emphasis of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and to learn ways to overcome them. As a result, mentoring is the kind of relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved. Self-Reflection As the context of education is ever changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in collective reflection practices such as peer coaching, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self-assessment reflective practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- directed development is a process by which a teacher systematically plans for his or her own professional growth in teaching. Glatthorn further described that self-directed approaches are mostly ideal for teachers who prefer to work alone or who, because of scheduling or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) considered this option to be efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others. Thus, the writers indicated that in self-directed supervision teachers work alone by assuming responsi bility for their own professional development (p. 276). Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is an option provided for teachers that enable them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those goals, and undertake the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes (p. 200). In addition, this approach is particularly suited to competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Portfolios As teachers want to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with teacher compiled collection of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials, and student work that represents the teachers professional growth and abilities (Riggs Sandlin, 2000). A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records, photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective practices of teachers, but also it is a central road for teachers professional growth through self-reflection, analysis, and sharing with colleagues through discussion and writing (p. 215). The writers further described that portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships. Professional Growth Plans Professional growth plans are defined as individual goal-setting activities, long term projects teachers develop and carry out relating to the teaching (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional and professional goals by setting intended outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth plans as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read, and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans could produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and increased focus and commitment to learning (p. 422). Summative Evaluation There is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda, 2007). Teacher evaluation involves two distinct components: formative evaluation and summative evaluation (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers professional growth, where as summative teacher evaluation is designed to judge and rate the quality of ones own teaching and level of professional growth. In this regard, the purposes of instructional supervision are formative- focused on teachers ongoing professional development, and the intents of evaluation are summative- assessment of professional performance which leads to a final judgment (Zepeda, 2007). However, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that both formative and summative teacher evaluations cannot be separated, for each contains aspects of the other. Summative evalua tion, therefore, uses various techniques such as, administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment tools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). 2.3 Teachers Perception of Supervisory Processes From laypersons conducting school inspection in the 18th century, up to the practice of neo-scientific management, instructional supervision in most schools of the world has focused on inspection and control of teachers (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), historically the evaluation function of supervision was rooted in bureaucratic inspectional type supervision (p. 22). The writers further described that teachers view supervision for the sake of evaluation as often being anything other than up lifting. In a study of supervision and teacher satisfaction, Fraser (1980) stated that the improvement of the teaching learning process was dependent upon teacher attitudes toward supervision (p. 224). The writer noted that unless teachers perceive supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning, the supervisory practice will not bring the desired effect. Kapfunde (1990) stated that teachers usually associate instructional supervision with appraisal, rating, and controlling them. In Ethiopia, many teachers resent or even fear being supervised because of the history of supervision, which has always been biased towards evaluation or inspection (Haileselassie, 1997). Regarding the challenges of teachers, it is stated in various literatures that beginning teachers face more challenges than more experienced teachers. Teaching has been a career in which the greatest challenge and most difficult responsibilities are faced by those with the least experience (Glickman, Gordon Ross-Gordon, 1998, p. 21). At least 30 percent of beginning teachers leave the profession during the first two years (Casey Mitchell, 1996). For many less experienced teachers, supervision is viewed as a meaningless exercise that has little value than completion of the required evaluation form (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1998). The writers further described that no matter h ow capable are designated supervisors, as long as supervision is viewed as doing something to teachers and for teachers, its potential to improve schools will not be fully realized (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 5). Teachers do not perceive supervision as helpful for their teaching and professional growth when its approach is focused on teacher appraisal and efficiency (Acheson Gall, 1992; Zepeda Ponticell, 1998). Various literatures identified supervision to be unfamiliar with most teachers because of its evaluative structure (Acheson Gall, 1992). According to Smyth (1991), the cause for resistance to supervisory practices by most teachers is the hierarchical and explotative form of teacher evaluation introduced by some types of supervision. In line with this, Acheson and Gall (1992) said that the hostility of teachers is not towards supervision but the supervisory styles teachers typically receive. Thus, selecting and applying supervisory models aimed at teachers instructional improvement and professional growth is imperative to develop a sense of trust, autonomy, and professional learning culture (Hargreaves Fullan, 2000). 2.4 Relationship between Instructional Supervision and Professional Development The overall purpose of instructional supervision is to help teachers improve, and this improvement could be on what teachers know, the improvement of teaching skills, as well as teachers ability to make more informed professional decisions (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). According to Zepeda (2007), there must be a clear connection of instructional supervision to professional development and teacher evaluation. She added that the various models or approaches of instructional supervision such as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, etc. bridge instructional supervision and professional development. Instructional supervision, with its focus on collegiality and professional improvement, is an important tool in building an effective teachers professional development. Instructional supervision is an organizational function concerned with teacher growth, leading to improvement in teaching performance and greater student learning (Nolan Hoover, 2008, p. 6). It is clear that continuous improvement in methods and skills is necessary for every professional, and so the professional development of teachers has become highly important (Anderson Snyder, 1998; Carter, 2001; Zepeda, 2007). Professional development is an important part of an ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their classroom management skills, their ability to adapt to instruction to meet students needs, and establishing a professional culture which is important in teaching and learning (Wanzare Da Costa, 2000). Professional development gives emphasis on the development of professional expertise by involving teachers in a problem solving and action research (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan (1997) on the other hand, stated that as fields of educational development, instructional supervision and professional development are interlinked and can and should overlap as needs and local preferences dictate (p. 159). From the supervisors view point, professional development emphasizes providing teachers with the opportunity and resources they need to reflect on their practice and to share their practice with others (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 216). Instructional supervision and professional development are linked in several ways. As McQuarrie and Wood (1991) noted one connection to be through the use of data obtained from supervisional practices used in planning and implementing staff development as part of instructional improvement and helping teachers improve their skills. The writers further stated that both instructional supervision and professional development: (1) focus on teacher effectiveness in class room; (2) may be provided by teachers, supervisors, and administrators; (3) are judgment-free practices that improve teachers instructional activities in a collaborative ways; and (4) promote in their participants a sense of ownership, commitment, and trust toward instructional improvement. Anything supervisors can perform to help teachers develop and strengthen becomes an investment in promoting professional development (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). And thus, professional development allows teachers to make their own decisions regarding their knowledge and skills improvement and to assume personal accountability (Retting, 1999; Kaagan, 2004). Professional development needs of beginner teachers differ from those experienced teachers, and special supervisory approaches should be developed to meet these needs (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), beginning teachers are characterized by their preferences for certain types of supervisory approaches. Most importantly, they need intensive assistance of clinical supervision. Similarly, they need mentoring, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, and other collegial supervisory approaches. The writer further noted that experienced teachers also have their own special professional development needs and preferences. Most experienced teachers can benefit from collaborative and self-directed supervisional practices which will foster continuous professional growth and development. In general, instructional supervision is an ongoing process which enables teachers the opportunity to develop professionally and different supervisory options should be provided for different teachers based on their experience and level of difficulty.

Joseph Stalin Essay -- Biography Soviet Union European History

Joseph Stalin Joseph Stalin was one of the biggest mass murderers of the twentieth century. From the purges in the Red Army to forced relocations, Stalin had the blood of millions on his hands. This essay is not going to debate the fact that this was indeed a brutal and power hungry individual, because he was indeed just that. I will on the other hand show you that through his way of governing the Soviet Union, he actually saved mother Russia from the German invasion in World War Two through his cunning and ruthlessness. Joseph Stalin was a very industrious person and used every means possible to better prepare his country for the coming war that he believed was inevitable. Wether it was diplomatic plotting, economic maneuvering, or just plain brute force, Stalin used every tool in his vast arsenal. The following are some of the more important decisions and methods that Stalin employed. Stalin was forced to consolidate his power through harsh means to better rule the Soviet Union. He ordered the five year plans to industrialize the nation and ordered one of the largest military build up plans ever. Stalin attempted many times to reach a diplomatic solution and ways to delay war with the Axis powers while at the same time trying to guarantee security from the West. Stalin wanted nothing less than to rule the Soviet Union and make her the greatest country in the world and he would stop at nothing to reach those goals. In his quest for leadership Stalin wished to consolidate his power in only himself, t hus enabling him to better rule the Soviet Union. Stalin's roots in politics go all the way back to him being expelled from the theological seminary in Tiflis, Georgia in 1899. This was where Stalin got his first real taste for politics and from that point on his political ambitions grew greater and greater. Stalin soon joined up with the Social Democratic Party and after the party split over ideological differences in 1903, Stalin joined the Bolshevik party under Vladimir Lenin. From 1903 to 1912 Stalin was arrested, and managed to escape, several times. He was exiled to Siberia from 1913 to 1917, returning only after the fall of the Tsar. With the fall of the Tzar and the country in the hands of the revolutionaries Stalin believed it to be the perfect time to come back and renew his political ambitions. Stalin was appointed Commissar of Nationalities ... ... military industry at the beginning of the war and up-to-date equipment was starting to be delivered to the front. The movement of the war industry east contributed to the lack of material but proved to be the saving grace of the army in the end. At the end the Soviet war industries were producing some of the best equipment in the world. In the end I do believe that through Stalin's leadership the Soviet Union was saved. Had it been under the leadership of the intended Communist bureaucracy it would have surely fallen. As we have seen in our country even simple matters can take forever to go into effect or get started under a bureaucracy. In that highly volatile and dangerous time period only an iron fisted rule could bring about change fast enough to due any good. True in the short term peoples right were trampled upon and millions died from famine, purges, and the war itself but in the end hundred's of millions were saved. Bibliography Robert Conquest, The Great Terror, (Toronto: Macmillan and Co. Ltd, 1968), p.123. Alexander Werth, Russia at War, (London: Barrie and Rockcliff, 1964), p.19. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin, (New York: Oxford University Pres, Inc 1967.

Vitamins Essay -- essays research papers

Vitamins In the early 20th century the discovery of vitamins began. Today there is a chance that there are some vitamins that are still undiscovered. The definition of vitamin is: one of several substances necessary for animal nutrition, and occurring in minute quantities in natural foods; numerous types have been distinguished, and designated by the letters of the alphabet. Each and every living animal needs vitamins to grow and be healthy. Since the human body can t produce vitamins naturally or normally produce the amounts needed, food provides the body with them. There are different vitamins found in different foods. These vitamins give vital nutrients to an animal. In 1906, the British biochemist Sir. Frederick Hopkins demonstrated that foods contain accessory factors in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and water. Then, in 1912, thee chemist Casimir Funk identified that the antiberiberi substance in unpolished rice was an amine (a type of Nitrogen-containing compound), so Funk proposed that it be named vitamine, from vital amine. It was later discovered that different vitamins have different chemical properties. This discovery caused vitamine to be turned into vitamin. In 1912 Hopkins and Funk made a hypothesis. The hypothesis stated the absence of some vitamins could cause diseases such as beriberi and scurvy. Later a letter was assigned to each vitamin. The letters which were assigned to vitamins in the early years of vitamin research categoriz...

Literary Tools of a Writer

The world is full of writers of all kinds: novelists, biographers, copy writers, and even floggers. Every so often, one of those writers will rise above the rest and become a great author?but what exactly does that take? Many qualities have to come together in one person to make his or her writing great, so having the idea for a story alone is not enough; great writers also have to possess talent and originality as well as the dedication required to see a story through to the end.Anyone can tell a story, but it takes special talent to tell a story beautifully and engagingly. As a reader, my favorite stories are always the ones that draw me in with descriptive language, imagery, and metaphors used skillfully by the authors. One example is F. Scott Fitzgerald The Great Gatsby, which I loved reading because of Fitzgerald talent for using literary devices.In one chapter, he describes a valley full of ashes, but instead of simply calling it what it is, Fitzgerald creates a much more inter esting and inspiring description: â€Å"This is a valley of ashes?a fantastic farm where ashes grow like wheat into ridges and hills and grotesque gardens; where she take the forms of houses and chimneys and rising smoke and, finally, with a transcendent effort, of ash-gray men who move dimly and already crumbling through the powdery air† (23).Rather than Just telling you that the valley is full of ashes, Fitzgerald shows you with his words, creating images in your mind of a gray, ashy valley through his expert use of metaphors and similes. This mastery of figurative language is one of the most important parts of being a great writer, because it is what separates a simple story, like one that you would tell from day to day, from a literary masterpiece.