S6W4PAPER1 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

S6W4PAPER1 - Research Paper Example This unilateral French military intervention, though not directly under instructions of the UN Security Council, has been seen as a reprieve not only by the Malians but a majority of global nations. However, it is worth noting that this foreign military intervention had little to do with the ethnic grievances of the Tuaregs. Instead, there are a number of underlying factors, forces and groups that orchestrated the intervention. In this research paper, I seek to find out the sources of the recent military intervention in Mali. Special attention is given to the main issues of the conflict that include conflict management and security. To begin with, one major reason for global military intervention is linked to the vulnerability of the transitional Malian government. After the coup, the government in place had the duty to oversee the developments of the country in efforts to regain normalcy. Unfortunately, the civilian-led government based at the capital city, Bamako, has been made ineffective by internal conflicts and military interference. In addition, corruption that has been deep-rooted in most of the state institution has weakened the structures in place to ensure that the government is running efficiently and effectively. Whereas all this was taking place, the simmering ethnic battles in the northern Mali saw over 350,000 people displaced resulting in serious human and political crises. The people who were leading the rebellions were mostly the Tuaregs who were returning back to their country after the revolution against Muammar Gaddafi in Libya. Most of them were serving in the Gaddafi army and as such car ried alongside with them an assortment of arms. Also, since they had just returned from a revolutionary war in Libya, these returnees were still motivated by their combative instincts to propagate the same war in Mali3. The Malian government, as well as the

Critical thinking paper Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critical thinking paper - Case Study Example This is also aggravated by some situations in which consumers and managed care organizations have less understanding on the role played by APNs. This only implies that aside from its full obligation to patients for remarkable health care, there is also a need for APNs to understand prevailing policies coming from the government and other health care providers such as insurance company. This is to ensure that everything will be properly understood by APNs so as they can explain and elaborate well everything to their patients regarding financial considerations. At the bottom line, this would ensure continuation of a good relationship with the patients. This only implies that APNs must not only focus on providing actual and quality health care, but other substantial information that will substantially influence the standard of their service. Ethical issues are those that conform to standards which are accepted and thus it is consistent with agreed principles of correct moral conduct. Part of the moral considerations among advanced practice nurses (APNs) is to consider care as central to maintaining nurse-patient relationship (Cox and Hill, 119). The established relation between the nurse and patients is a primary way in which the later can participate fully in the care program. APNs are always facing dilemmas when it comes to issues concerning about health care financing. At some point, this has affected the nurse-patient relationship. Considering that APNs have moral obligation and that is to provide quality care, it is undeniably true that they faced ethical dilemmas. However, this can only be understood by giving proper information to patient and his family. Patients and family deserve significant information other than the actual health care service itself. This can be successfully implemented if APNs must also focus on other social concerns especially when it comes to financial considerations. The whole thing must be essentially

Continental Cablevision Inc Expansion

Continental Cablevision Inc Expansion Executive Summary The Joint-Venture agreement: On February 1994, Continental Cablevision Inc., the third largest U.S. cable TV Company and Fintelco, Argentinas leading television-cable operator had drafted a joint venture structure after several meetings and negotiations. The joint-venture structure took six months to develop. Continental Cablevision: Two Harvard graduates founded Continental in 1963, and the success of the company based on growth strategy i.e. ‘cluster cable system, and as on Dec 1993, the company serves has 3 million subscribers in 19 states of U.S. The company starts exploring international market because of saturation of US cable market and Governments deregulation of cable industry. In 1993, company started explores joint venture in Singapore and Australia. In the meantime, Robert Stengel received a call from Jack Crosby, associate of Texas businessman showed concerns investment opportunity with Fintelco. Fintelco: Samuel Liberman, an Argentine entrepreneur founded Fintelco in 1980. The growth strategy was also same as Continental. The company was Argentines largest cable operating service provider and around 390,000 cable subscribers by 1990 in Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Rosario and other Argentine cities. The company also bought Video Vision in 1993, the largest cable-television-system operator in Cordoba. As the cable market was optimistic, Liberman wants to expansion of the company but due to lack of well-developed local capital market as well as the Argentinas capital market did understand cable market, and it is new for the Argentines bank to do investment in media sector. Factors enhanced the joint venture: Exhibits 10 shows that Argentinas cable market had become most developed in Latin America, by 1994 approx 4 million subscribers and the growth rate of 50% while U.S. cable market towards maturation phase. Argentinas cable industry deregulated by the Government, which created competitive and strong cable market in Argentina. Under the deregulation plan, U.S. investors can invest 100% in cable systems and 25% of broadcast- television station in Argentina. Conclusion: The joint venture of Continental and Fintelco and 50-50 deal was as a win-win for both partners as commended by Sachs even though there are few pit holes. Fintelco needs investment to expand the services in Argentina where Continental exploring foreign investment for expanding business outside U.S. In this deal, Continental gets a local partner so that the investment risk reduces where as Fintelco not only get financial investment also gets technological assistance, experienced management team, which helps Fintelco aggressive entry in Argentinas cable market with new strategy. Continental Cablevision, Inc. is a leading provider of broadband communications services. As of December 31, 1996, the Companys cable television systems and those of its U.S. affiliates passed approximately 7.4 million homes and provided service to approximately 4.4 million basic cable subscribers, making the Company the third-largest cable television system operator in the United States. In addition, Continental has pursued investments in sectors that are complementary to its core business, including interests in International broadband communications Telecommunications and technology, including competitive-access telephony and direct broadcast satellite (DBS) service and Programming services. On November 15, 1996, Continental merged with and into Continental Merger Corporation; a wholly owned subsidiary of U.S. WEST, Inc. Continental Merger Corporation changed its name to Continental Cablevision, Inc. on the Merger Date. The Company or Continental refers to both the Successor Corporation and the Predecessor Corporation. Continental is one of the multimedia businesses of U.S. WEST and is a member of the U.S. West Media Group (the Media Group). The Media Group is comprised of: cable and telecommunications network businesses outside of the Communications Group fourteen state region, domestic and international wireless communications network businesses and domestic and international directory and information services businesses. Media Group is one of two major groups that make up U S WEST. The other major group, the Communications Group, provides telecommunications services in fourteen western and midwestern states. See the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information related to the Merger. U.S. Cable Television Business Cable television is a service that delivers a wide variety of channels of television programming, consisting primarily of video entertainment, sports and news, as well as informational services, locally originated programming and digital audio programming, to the homes of subscribers who pay a monthly fee for the service. Television and radio signals are received by off-air antennas, microwave relay systems, satellite earth stations and fiber-optic cables and then distributed to subscribers homes over networks of coaxial and fiber-optic cables. The joint venture of Continental and Fintelco was a long-term strategic move in the history of cable service provider. Entry of continental in to the Argentine market was a good strategic move for the company. Continental exploring the international market hence, the U.S. cable market reaches stage of saturation and the deregulation of cable industry by U.S. government make the cable market is more competitive in U.S. so joint venture of Continental and Fintelco is a good strategic move because it will reduce the market entry risk in foreign market using local partner in joint venture For Continental six months will be not enough to study a foreign market and invest so getting a local partner who is premier service provider will help to run the business in profit in very short time. The foreign investor no need license to provide the cable service otherwise it will delay the process in this Continental will save the time and they can use best the local resources. Fintelco is Argentines largest cable operating service provider and they have a better understand of the cable market than a foreign investors and it will be difficult to fight head to head for a foreign investor against a local company so for Continental a good move to choose Fintelco a venture partner. Amos and Samuel both are self-made man and they have similarities of personality and they are quite comfortable each other not just at business level they are personally comfortably each other. This means they trust each other and have respect for each other so in this situation doing business will be easier for long-term partnership. Continentals success of the company based on growth strategy i.e. ‘cluster cable system, which is same strategy of Fintelco so it is easier to executive and understand the management of the company together as well if they have common strategies it will be easier to make future marketing strategies of the company. Argentinas government deregulation plan helps Continental to move strategically to invest in Argentinas cable company Fintelco. Even though if Fintelco will discontinue with Continental in this scenario the Continental does not need to find venture partner urgently because Continentals investment in Fintelco is subject to regulatory approval by Federal authorities working in Argentina. The recent approval of a bi-lateral investment and trade agreement between Argentina and the U.S. make it possible for the first time for U.S. companies to own cable systems in Argentina. Therefore, it allows U.S. investors to invest 100% in cable industry. So there is possibilities for Continental to buy the 50% share from Fintelco. When Argentina entered the decade of the 1990s, the economic performance was dull it over a prolonged period of time. From the period of 1975 through 1990, the country was plagued by high inflation and general economic stagnation. Inflation seldom fell below 100 percent; there were bouts of hyperinflation, notably in 1985 and 1989-90. In the year 1990, real GDP stood 6 percent below the level in 1974. Over this period of time, the general stance of economic policy was inward-looking and interventionist, although there were occasional attempts to adopt more market oriented policies. All-out crises erupted twice during the 1980s. But with the help of joint venture of Continental and Fintelco, these companies were able to cope up with the Inflation. All the above factors indicate that the Continentals move to entry into Argentines market was a good strategic move, and Fintelco was an appropriate venture partner. In Businesses joint ventures or partnership is very important to strong the relation for long-term commitment or collaboration to start or continue short-term project. The opportunities and risk of Continental and Fintelco joint venture are as follows: Opportunities: Local market knowledge This venture has an advantage of a local partner, knowledge of the local market is extremely important for a company to do business in other country. It is more important for an entertainment industry to know about their customs, culture, political scenario and regulatory laws. In this venture, Fintelco is a local leading cable provider so it is easier for the company to customize the programme and marketing accordingly. Sharing of resources Fintelco is a local company so there are many data available with the company, which can be used for marketing and customizing progemme otherwise for Continental it will take time to conduct surveys, gathering data and analysis it consume lot of money as well as time. So with this venture there are lots of opportunity to save time and money which is so important for a company so that they can use the money for strategic investment. Continentals technical assistance offering will help the venture to upgrade the technology in Argentinas cable market without any cost paying. Advance technology edge will give business advantage as well as lost operating cost. Later, the venture can sell their technology skills to small cable operator so they can extend their services. Argentinas cable market In Latin America, Argentinas television and cable markets it has the largest number of television receivers (8,000/thousand population) in the region affter Brazil and Mexico by 1994. And its cable penetration was 50% (case studys exhibits 10). It is good opportunity for the venture to make strategy to capture market share as much as possible while acquiring small cable service provider or extending the services in new regions. Flexible venture One important aspect of the venture is the venture is flexible and partner of Fintelco is Continental, which based in U.S. The recent approval of a bi-lateral investment and trade agreement between Argentina and the U.S. make it possible for the first time for U.S. companies to own cable systems in Argentina and invest up to 100%. Therefore, it allows Continental to invest as much as possible to expand the market. Fintelco get regular investment from the venture partner and on other side Continental able to expand the business international market without and legal barrier for investment. The flexible venture also be a risk that both partner might be internally try to increase the percentage of share holding of the camapany. Telephone and Satellite markets Argentinas tele-communications and wireless cable is underdeveloped so there are opportunities for the venture to investment in this sector as well as extend their business to reduce the risk doing one business. Risk: Different cultures and management styles Both companies culture and management style is different which may be result in poor integration and co-operation among the staff. Continental not just limited to investment they will share the management committee. Objective of the venture The objectives of the venture were not very clear and communicated to everyone involved. This venture is most like to their personal preference and level of comfortable and mutual trust. But in future absence of their may create confusion and may the venture get trouble, Leadership If the management committee will share by venture partner then it will be difficult for both leader to be present at all meeting to guide and mentor the newly formed managerial committee that may be difficult to follow the value of the company. Success of the joint venture was dependent on clear aims and objectives, mutual trust and open discussion among partners. The business plan should be communicated effectively and clearly at all levels of staff and involvement of majority of employees. In 1994, the senior management of Continental Cablevision contemplated acquiring a 50 % interest in the largest Argentine television cable company, Fintelco, for $80 million up front, and an additional $70 million over the next few years, Continental is facing a maturing market in the U.S., and sought new avenues of growth and outlets for its strong positive cash flow. Meanwhile, Fintelco needed cash for the aggressive build-out of its cable system. Strategically and organizationally, the investment seemed to make sense. The forecasted cash flows in Argentine pesos. As a matter of government policy, the peso was pegged to the dollar at 1:1 exchange rate. But whether this was sustainable, the Economist Intelligence Unit projected inflation in the dollar at 2.5 % for the next 5 years and inflation in the peso at 6 to 12 % over the same period. There were no firms comparable to Fintelco listed for trading on the Argentine equity market. Continentals analyst took a sample of betas for cable firms in the U.S,, unlevered and averaged them, and then relieved the average to drive a firm beta for Fintelco. The country beta for Argentina currently was 1.96. The countrys risk yield premium was 350 basis points over U.S. treasuries at the time. Continental was uncertain about the governments commitment to maintaining a 1:1 convertibility between the Argentine peso and the U.S dollar, so the analysts modeled the cost of capital estimate under both scenarios. Under the 1:1 convertibility and devaluation scenarios, the resulting estimates of cost of capital were 20.75 and weighted cost of capital (WACC) 19.21% respectively. Exhibits 1 2 give the calculations of the WACC and NPV for the investment. The result presents two exchange rate scenarios: 1:1 and depreciating peso. Under the stable scenario, the NPV would be $96.2 million and under the depreciating peso scenario, the NPV would be -$15 million. At that point in time analysts should not be biased with the new venture and valuate the price of the deal again, specifically with the depreciating peso scenario. Both the companies were offering different kinds of deals. One was offering 75% while the second was offering 25% but finally they came to 50-50 partnership deal. Apart from few pit holes, this deal was a fair deal for both the companies. Continental wanted to enter into the Argentine market and Fintelco needed capital at that time. So, overall, the deal worked well and both companies were in win win position. In an international joint venture, generally, small enterprises suffer two basic disadvantages that large enterprises by definition are without: Elevated rates of employee costs. Working capital requirements. Large enterprises like Continental cablevision have lower costs per unit turnover and substantially larger cash flow capacities. Moreover, these kinds of joint ventures represent a high risk factor in terms of debt repayment capacity, often because of inadequate financial know-how and limited access to guidance and consultation. Long term success of the joint venture is additionally contingent upon a heightened degree of financial flexibility that enables rapid adaptation to changing market needs. The disappointment with large scale, capital intensive and often import-dependent businesses has been growing long before the current global economic downturn set in. Continental and Fintelco has a lot to blame on themselves for their experience with large enterprises, reports of their diminishing impact on inclusive economic growth is emerging unmistakably from across the globe. As new economic realities begin to hold sway, slowly but surely the practicality of these kinds of ventures running on gigantic employee and capital turnovers is slipping away. It holds out a multitude of short and long term benefits that are of especial relevance to this joint venture. In the context of both immediate and long term goals, a policy shift in favor of rapid promotion of smaller enterprises is perhaps the only policy priority standing between Continental and Fintelco and a rapidly prospering economy. There are significant challenges in this direction, none more pressing than the need to create a mindset change among these companies with regards to grassroots entrepreneurship. Further practical problems were in the form of skilled manpower shortage, a disturbing enterprise mortality rate and devastating infrastructural deficiencies, especially in terms of security, power and roads. Improving availability and access to finance and equity was the most critical challenge by far,. In order to ensure rapid development, both companies must effect swift fiscal, monetary and industrial policy changes in order to capitalize on its huge potential of venture. A lot more things depend on the effective management of its human resource capital its sizeable population that has been traditionally dependent on extremely small, subsistence-level enterprises. It is a matter of fact that the fate of Continental and Fintelco ambitious economic goals rests largely on its ability to convert this talent into tangible economic growth.

teenage alcoholism :: essays research papers

Socraric Method The Socratic Method of philosophy is basically a series of question leading to an answer. In order for this method to work though, two conditions must be met. The first one is that the interlocutor has to say what he believes. The second is that the answers must be kept short. Here is a classic example of how this method works. It is a dialogue between Socrates and Euthyphro. The thesis is â€Å"What is dear to the gods is pious, what is not is impious.† Next Socrates gets Euthyphro to agree to the following points. The first point is that piety and impiety are opposite. The next point is that the gods are in a state of discord. The next is that they are in discord over what is just and what is unjust. They have no set unit to measure it by. The next point is that the different gods consider different things to be just and unjust. From there he goes on to agree that some things are both just and unjust. Finally, he agrees that some things can be both god loved and god hated. T he same things would then be both pious and impious according to the argument above. The way that this argument relates to the rest of the Euthyphro starts back at the beginning of the story. Socrates sees Euthyphro standing by the courthouse and naturally asks why he is there. Euthyphro explains that he is the prosecutor in a murder trial. It turns out that it is his father that he is prosecuting for the murder of a murderer. He laments to Socrates that his family and friends believe that his doing this is impious, but he believes that they are mistaken and this reveals their ignorance of piety. Since Socrates is Socrates, this naturally leads him to ask just exactly what piety is.

Feminism Essay

INTRODUCTION From the early days until now, women are exploited in their daily life especially by the labor market. In this paper, we are going to see how women are exploited in the labor market. Exploitation of women is a social fact in the world, so I chose this topic because it started to be a social problem after the Second World War period and Industrial Revolution. In the Second World War, most of our women faced many problems by participating and aiding the men. Actually, if we go back in time, we can see the gender-based division of labor typical of hunting and gathering societies. For example, most forms of farming were characterized by a distinction between ‘‘men’s work’’ and ‘‘women’s work.’’ In horticulture, the chief task for men was to clear the land. After this was done, women performed the more time-consuming tasks of planting, weeding, and harvesting. As with economies based on hunting and gathering, economies depe nd on horticulture were much more affiliated to the labor of women than the productive activities of men. Men, however, took on a larger role when horticulture gave way to agriculture. Also, in prehistory, women have always worked as hard as men to support their families and build the cultures that dominated the ancient world. During the early Stone Age, when humans first appeared and lived in hunting and gathering, most of scientists support that women did most of the gathering while men did most of the hunting. Women always took part up to now. Thus, women in the ancient world worked hard. They were always overwhelmingly responsible for care of children and their ill, for providing food, and clothing for the household. In addition, most women took on the duties of bringing in some income for family or working in the family  businesses. These facts remained constant. What did change over time was the degree to which women’s contribution was valued: As life became more urban, women’s contribution within the home was valued less than it was when life was more rural. It was with city life that labor outside the home which brought in money as a profit was valued more than labor within the home. This shift caused women’s work to be devalued. This devaluation began in the ancient world and continues into the present to the detriment of women without whose labors families and societies would not have survived. With the development of agriculture, societies grew larger and more complex. The increased population also permitted more specialization of labor, and women’s labor remained essential and varied. After the Agricultural Revolution, the technological and organizational changes that were the basis of some transformation have been labeled the Industrial Revolution which is first in Britain and then in many other parts of world. One of the conspicuous social changes was movement of women into paid employment in Industrial Revolution. This was not the same thing as an increase in number of ‘working women.’ Women have always worked hard up to now. The Industrial Revolution gave women new wage-earning opportunities, especially in the textile industry and the majority of the workforce was made up of young, unmarried women. Most of employers and factories benefited from women’s work, as their employment drove down the cost of labor. The Industrialization creates new opportunities for women in job creation especially in textile, clothing, and food industries. Also, during the industrial revolution, the emergence of factories opened many doors for women in the working world. It gave them opportunities for work outside of the home, mostly in factories. During the early years of the Industrial Revolution when a multitude of factories were emerging, between the years of 1780 and 1840, women are dominated by the labor forces. Even though these women were unskilled laborers, they worked quickly and productively yet were paid half or less than half of what men received. However, in the long run it did not change the female workforce. Although the Industrial Revolution provided independent wages, mobility and a better standard of living, for the majority, factory work in the early years of the nineteenth century resulted in a life of hardship. With the Industrialization, women’s life conditions started with many difficulties. They are suffered by lots of  stress and pain as a result of the conditions in which these women were working lon g hours, little food, crowded factories, overall unsuitable conditions. Most of women claimed that they have to study and bring home the bacon even they have a low-paid job. At this time, the early Industrialization did not invent large numbers of jobs for women. Despite it resumed to employ large numbers of women for the production of textiles and clothing, household-based manufacture persisted important aspects of the national economy. Moreover, with the development of mechanized textile industry and other industrial enterprises, many women continued to work with long hours and low wages. Finally, the most part of women worked long hours for low wages from ancient times to date. They have faced many difficulties in their daily life in both inside and outside the home; however, I will emphasize women’s work outside the home in the labor market. In the project, we will see exploitation of women in the labor market from Marxist-Feminist perspective with the examples. WHAT IS FEMINISM? Although there are many definitions of feminism and some disagreement concerning specific definition, there is agreement on two core principles underlying any concept of feminism. First, feminism concerns equality and justice for all women, and it seeks to eliminate systems of inequality and injustice in all aspects of women’s lives. Second, feminism is inclusive and affirming of women; it celebrates women’s achievements and struggles and works to provide a positive and affirming position toward women and womanhood. Feminism is a personal perspective as well as political theory and social movements. Feminism denotes to social theories, economic ideologies, political movements, and moral philosophies aimed at bringing equality to women. Also, it refers to complex set of political ideologies used by the movement in order to advance the cause of women’s equality, to end the sexist theory, and to practice of social oppression. Feminism has been classified in differen t groups and issues over the history. The first wave feminism gave rise to liberal feminists who make a struggle for the vote, access to education, and marry law reforms in the 1800s and 1900s. In the second wave feminism, we can see it with the emergence of radical feminists who protested for work and reproductive rights in the 1960s and 1970s. The third wave feminism associates with all forms of oppression (such  as racism, globalization) from 1990s to date. Also, the second wave of feminism spread across the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. By 1970, women’s liberation was in the news and a part of many women’s lives. For example, feminists protested women’s magazines at the Ladies’ Home Journal sit-in and the nationwide Women’s Strike for Equality featured creative protests from women in cities across the United States. In Turkey, it has started in the Ottoman Empire in order to have right to education, right to labor, right to respectability in family, etc. in the 1870s. After these events, women’s studies improved and increased by women in the world and it has come to these days. I think, although most of societies take action about like violence, oppression, discrimination, and trafficking of women, exploitation of women cannot take care in the world. For example, most of women protest some actions like violence against women, but when it comes to the exploitation of women in labor market, there is no action in the society. In this sense, feminism is not just sexism, discrimination, oppression, etc. Feminism is having the equal rights like men and avoid from sexism, discrimination. ORIGINS OF FEMINISM The existence of the term feminism or the movement it has come to represent. The term feminism comes from the French word ‘fà ©minisme’ and was popularized by Hubertine Auclert in 1882 when she organized the first women’s suffragist society in France. However, prior to the advent of the word, there were publications that fell within the purview of feminism. Some feminists suggested that women should build their own cities, free of men, so as to avoid men’s violence and oppression. In this sense, the history of feminism is the chronological narrative of the movements and ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for women. While feminists around the world have differed in causes, goals, and intentions depending on time, culture, and country; however women’s right should be considered feminist movements, even though they did not apply the term to themselves. Also, as I mentioned before, feminism is a movement which is a collection of loosely connected groups and individuals committed to organized action, including changes in behavior and members of movements. Feminist ideas and social movements emerged in Europe,  Great Britain, and the United Sates in an international context that promoted the migration of people and ideas across national boundaries. At this time, Mary Wollstonecraft has published ‘Rights of Women’ (1792) and John Stuart Mill has broadcasted ‘The Subjection of Women’ (1869). Between these times, ideas, social movements, and individual feminists migrated across land and sea for generating a powerful new context for women’s rights. Therefore, these publications illuminate the process of this movement. Also, in Turkey At the end of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century educated women began organizing themselves as feminists within the elites of Istanbul. These feminists fought to increase women’s access to education and to work low- paid, to abolish polygamy, etc. Early feminists printed woman magazines in different languages and established different organizations for women. Also during this time the Ottoman Welfare Organization of Women was first women association which was founded in Turkey in 1908. During the turn of the century accomplished writers and politicians such as Fatma Aliye Topuz (1862-1936), Nezihe Muhiddin (1889-1958) and Halide Edip AdÄ ±var (1884-1964) also joined the movement not only for advocating equality of Muslim women, but for women of all religions and ethnic backgrounds. ON THE HISTORY OF FEMINISM Feminism, in the most generic of definitions, is the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes, and organized activity on behalf of women’s rights and common interests. There are many feminists and many different theories. However, feminism can be broken up into three waves; first-wave which was seen from the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, second-wave which lasted from the early 1960’s through the late 1980’s, and the third-wave which started in the early 1990’s, and it continues through present time. In this sense, feminist history is divided into three waves. A) First-wave Feminism The first-wave of feminism began in the United Kingdom and the United States around the nineteenth century and lasted until the early twentieth century. It focused on gaining the right of women’s suffrage, the right to be educated, better working conditions and sexual standards. The term, ‘first-wave’ was coined after the term second-wave feminism. The goal of  this wave was to open up opportunities for women, with a focus on suffrage. The wave formally began at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 when 300 men and women rallied to the cause of equality for women. Also, it emphasized mandated inequalities; but primarily gaining women’s suffrage. In this part, some feminists suppose inequality, patriarchy, lack ok distinction between men and women. For example, one of the earliest manifestations of first-wave feminism in Europe, Mary Wollstonecraft’s ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’ (1792) which was written in the wake of the Frenc h Revolution and Simone de Beauvoir’s ‘The Second Sex’ (1949) are central to the canon as well, even though both authors were also laying the groundwork for radical second-wave feminism. Beauvoir introduced the notion of women’s radical otherness or, rather, the cognitive and social process of â€Å"othering† women as the second sex in patriarchal societies. Finally, first-wave feminism has been clarified as socialist/Marxist feminism in workers’ unions in the United States, in reformist social-democratic parties in Europe, and during the rise of communism in the Soviet Union. Liberal and socialist/Marxist feminism shared a basic belief in equity and equal opportunities for women and men, but the latter focused particularly on working-class women and their involvement in class struggle. B) Second-wave Feminism The term second-wave feminism refers mostly to the radical feminism of the women’s liberation movement of the late 1960s and early 1990s. The second wave focused on the link between societal and cultural inequality and political inequality. This wave unfolded in the context of the anti-war and civil rights movements and the growing self-consciousness of minority groups around the world. In this phase, sexuality and reproductive rights were dominant issues. second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity. This phase began with protests against the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City between 1968 -1969 in terms of women’ s beauty dominated by patriarchy and low-paying jobs. For example, there was a worldwide movement called ‘Women’s Liberation Movement’ which was seen in Europe and Turkey. For example, most of women who work in clothing and textile factory staged a protest to these factories in terms of unhealthy working conditions, low-paid, poor sanitation, etc and it started with strike. When the police attacked to women, it broke out fire and many women died because of fire in Europe.  Finally, at this stage, women’s liberation grew out of the New Left and provided alliances with socialist/Marxist feminisms in areas such as the criticism of the dual workload for women working outside as well as inside the home, the demand of equal pay for equal work, a breakdown of the gendered division of the educational system and the labor market. C) Third-wave Feminism The third wave began in the 1990s as a response to the perceived failures of second wave feminism. It is a more holistic approach and it seeks to fight inequality that occurs as a result of age, race, sexual orientation, economic status and education as well as gender. Third wave feminism is also known as a variety of other names including girlie feminism, lipstick feminism, and etc. Also, it currently emphasizes the concepts of globalization, post colonialism, post-structuralism, and postmodernism. Third-wave feminism is tied up with the effects of globalization and the complex redistribution of power, which challenge feminist theory and politics. It also mirrors the diversification of women’s interests and perspectives and the breakdown of master stories of oppression and liberation. Finally, Third-wave feminism manifests itself in â€Å"grrl† rhetoric, which seeks to overcome the theoretical question of equity or difference and the political question of evolution or revolution, while it challenges the notion of â€Å"universal womanhood† diversity, and multiplicity in transversal in theory and politics. TYPES OF FEMINISM Feminism, like Marxism, takes a macro approach to studying society. They argue that there is inequality between genders. Feminist sociologists argue that, on account of their sex, women experience injustices in favor of men. For Feminists, it is living in a patriarchal society that leads to inequalities for women. This means that men have tended to determine the lives of women. However, there are striking differences between feminists in their values and perspectives. These differences can be divided into three broad tendencies like Liberal Feminism, Radical Feminism, and Marxist/Socialist Feminism. Also, there are other feminist ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for women such as; ecofeminism, multiracial feminism, moderate  feminism, etc.; but, these three main types of feminism is the most important ideologies in feminism. 1) Liberal Feminism Liberal feminism is a form of feminism that argues that equality for women can be achieved through legal means and social reform. Liberal feminism leans towards an equality or sameness argument with men. It primarily focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their actions and choices. Liberal feminists argue that our society holds are false belief that women are, by nature, less intellectually and physically capable than men, it tends to discriminate against women in the academy, the forum, and marketplace. Liberal feminists seek equal rights with men and believe individuals should be treated in accordance with their talents and effort etc. as opposed to characteristics of their sex. They campaign to remove any obstacle, be it political, social, legal or economical that gets in the way of women having the same opportunities as their male counterparts. Gender prejudice is based around individual ignorance. Education is seen as a valuable tool in the battle against discrimination based around ignorance. It is possible to legislate against sexual discrimination as a way of changing individual attitudes and behavior. For example, this action came up with the Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Acts in the 1970s in Britain. Liberal feminists also tend to support marriage as an equal partnership, and more male involvement in child care. Abortion and other reproductive rights have to do with control of one’s life choices and autonomy. Liberal feminism conceives of politics in individualistic terms and looks to reform present practices in society, rather than advocating for a wholesale revolutionary change. Feminist writers associated with this tradition include early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft and second-wave feminist Betty Friedan. 2) Radical Feminism Radical feminists believe that the main rival of women is patriarchy, which guarantees male supremacy and the subordination of women at work and in the home. Patriarchy has existed in all known human societies and, as such, pre-dates capitalist forms of gender inequality. Patriarchal relationships are considered to have paved the way for capitalist forms of economic and  gender exploitation. In their view, men inflict physical and sexual violence over women and commandeer the majority of material rewards. They believe that men are able to justify their actions by persuading people. It is natural that men should be the dominant sex. For radical feminists, sexual inequality is institutionalized in society. It is not possible to achieve sexual equality through legal means or by â€Å"changing people’s attitudes†. Radical feminism advocates lesbian relationships to free themselves from men. They argue that new technology eliminates dependency on men as a means of conceivi ng. This group views the oppression of women as the most fundamental form of oppression, one that cuts across boundaries of race, culture, and economic class. This is a movement intent on social change, change of rather revolutionary proportions. Some radical feminists argue that female emancipation can be achieved technologically like women being freed from childbirth. In general, radical feminists see the exploitation of women as involving both the public sphere like work and the private sphere like in the home. Finally, radical feminism locates the root cause of women’s oppression in patriarchal gender relations. In this sense, radical feminists believe that gender inequality is a result of the collective efforts of men to dominate, control, and exploit women. 3) Marxist/Socialist Feminism Marxist/Socialist Feminists believe social class affects the life chances of women; it is a key factor in the relationship between men and women. They believe capitalism has led to amplification of conflicts between the sexes and that introducing communism would solve this. Under capitalism women are a ‘reserve army of labor’ who are excluded from crafts and exploited for free labor in the home. They believe men are socialized into exploitative roles. The phrase â€Å"socialist feminism† was increasingly used during the 1970s to describe a mixed theoretical and practical approach to achieving women’s equality. Socialist feminist theory analyzed the connection between the oppression of women and other oppression in society, such as racism and economic injustice. Socialists had fought for decades to create a more equal society that did not exploit the poor and powerless in the ways capitalism did. Like Marxism, socialist feminism recognized the oppressive str ucture of capitalist society. Like radical feminism, socialist  feminism recognized the fundamental oppression of women in patriarchal society. However, socialist feminists did not recognize gender and only gender as the exclusive basis of all oppression. For Marxist feminists, the concept of social class is considered to be more important than the concept of patriarchy since the latter is seen as a form of ideology that stems from class exploitation. Women are not a sex class because the only thing they have in common is their sex as an upper class woman. Women’s work and their social status are highly marginalized by their potential / actual â€Å"dual role† in modern societies (baby sitter and worker). Employers are able to exploit this dual role to pay women lower wages. Men are able to exploit this dual role by receiving â€Å"unpaid services† within the home. The main reason for women’s lower status in relation to men is the fact that they are generally economically dependent upon their male partner. MARXIST FEMINIST THEORY AND EXPLOITATION OF WOMEN IN LABOR MARKET To begin with, most of women are exploited by both work inside and outside the home and this condition is not recent origin. It started with hunting and gathering societies, but they have been very active in the labor market since the Second World War period. Women are exploited by discriminating, oppressing, working, etc. and their live always face with difficulties by these causes. However, if we analyze the background of exploitation of women, it partially comes from inequality because in the contemporary world, inequality is manifest in the economic and social class which affects women more than men in the world. It still continues to increase in every part of the world because of the capitalism. In this sense, Marxist feminism emphasizes the social institutions of private property and capitalism to explain and criticize gender inequality and oppression. Private property gives rise to economic inequality, dependence, political, and is the root of women’s oppression in the social context. Capitalism still alive in the society and with growth of the capitalism, exploitation of women increases continuously. Capitalism gave to women in an insignificant way. Marxist feminists view the capitalist drive for profits as responsible for women’s second-class status and other forms of oppression such as racism or discrimination. Moreover, Marxist feminism believes that women are an exploited class in the capitalist mode of production, both by their   within families and by employers in the paid labor market and the theory indicates that men are in bourgeoisie and women are in the proletariat. Marx showed that how the working class is exploited for profit by capitalists who gain wealth by paying workers a bare minimum of the value that they produce. Marxism and feminism complement one another in many ways, as both are centrally concerned with oppression and inequality. Marxist theory states that people are oppressed by the ruling class and that production, namely capitalism, is the ruling force of society. According to feminist theory, women are oppressed by a male-driven society. Marxist feminism, the intersection of the two philosophi es, calls for the dismantling of capitalism to free the proletariat and promote gender equality. Karl Marx critiqued the capitalist power structure that oppressed the proletariat, and which also oppresses women. Marxism and feminism complement one another in many ways, as both are centrally concerned with oppression and inequality. Marxist theory states that people are oppressed by the ruling class and that production, namely capitalism, is the ruling force of society. According to feminist theory, women are oppressed by a male-driven society. Marxist feminism, the intersection of the two philosophies, calls for the dismantling of capitalism to free the proletariat and promote gender equality. Also, scholars influenced by Karl Marx have seen capitalism as an inherently exploitative system one in which capitalist workers, whose low wages do not fairly compensate them for the work that they perform. Others have taken opposite position, arguing that capitalist industrialization, although uneven in its consequences, brought about a rise in incomes and living standards for the bulk o f the working population. Furthermore, women have been always worked in the labor market, factories, marketplace, etc. They are partially seen in subordination status. The main reason for women’s lower status is relation to men is the fact that they are economically dependent upon their male partner. Sometimes women have to dependent on their male partner because men always work in a factory and marketplace and most of men seem like ‘breadwinner’. In this sense, patriarchy is an ideology that comes from male attempts to justify the economic exploitation of women and patriarchal forms of exploitation have existed in all known societies, not just capitalist ones. In addition, they argue that patriarchy predates capitalism which makes it more  significant explanation of female exploitation. In some Mexican and Central American plants, women expose to pressure in order to not to become pregnant so that companies do not have to pay maternity leave. This exploitation is in form of ‘sweatshop’ like working conditions. They give unproportional wage compared to male workers. Today, it still continues like that. For example, in Nike companies, women face to some difficulties such as low wages, poor sanitation, no break, unhealthy environment, no security. Women are mostly seen like slave and victim in every sector of market. They do not say anything because most of women want to be independent individual and make money for their family. Also, textile and food industries are mostly preferred by women even the working conditions are not convenient. According to Marx, society is broken up into two classes containing those who own the means of production (factories, tools, capital) and the laborers who are exploited to produce the items demanded by the ruling class. Marxist feminists are primarily concerned with the division of labor that keeps women in the domestic sphere and men in the workplace. In addition to this, when women enter the workforce, they are delegated to jobs that are deemed appropriate for their gender and are usually underpaid for their work. Working-class women are clearly the most oppressed, super-exploited sector of the entire proletariat. Also, Engels said that ‘‘†¦These measures are not aimed at driving all women permanently out of the work force. Rather, they make women more vulnerable to increased exploitation, by driving down their place in the work force (lower wages, fewer hours, less job security, fewer holidays, and more piece work, less safety and less unionization). Thus this attack is focused on a sector of the work force whose place in the work force has traditionally been seen as marginal, but its overall effect is to exert a downward pressure on the wages and conditions of all workers’’( Engels, 2004:8). CONCLUSION As a conclusion, women are generally underpaid compared to men in every part of sector and working conditions; but not just labor market. Also, they expose to discrimination, pressure, sexual harassment, exploitation inside the home. They are exploited more by capitalism than male workers in the labor market. In this sense, Marxist feminist theory attempts to explain the  structure of modern industrial society with special emphasis on class and labor and women workers are exploited at a higher level than male, with women of color suffering the highest degree of exploitation because of gender and race discrimination. In my point of view, exploitation of women is a social fact in our society, not only in labor market but also in other aspects of their daily life like at home. Ä ±n the contemporary world, inequality is manifest in all sectors, most of companies, factories applied to pressure to the women like pregnancy, low wages, no security. Although, Industrial Revolution gave new opportunities in terms of jobs, exploitation of women continued to expand in the world. Today, thanks to the institutions, women are more outgoing in the society, even the exploitation of women still grows up. As a final point, exploitation of women is seen like a normal action in the society, at least others are not like that. In this sense, women are not classified by their race, gender, inequality, etc. References 1. Salisbury, J. E. (2001) ‘‘Encyclopedia of Women In The Ancient World’’ 2. Volti, R. (2008) ‘‘An Introduction to the Sociology of Work and Occupation’’ 3. Binder, C. & Richmann N. (2000) ‘‘Feminist Movements in Turkey’’ 4. Vinteuil, F. (2010 September 27) ‘‘Marxism and Feminism from Critique Communiste’’ from http://www.internationalviewpoint.org 5. Shaw, S. M. & Lee, J. (2012) ‘‘ Women’s Voices, Feminist Visions: classic and contemporary readings ’’(5. Edition) 6. â€Å"Working Women in the 1930s.† American Decades. 2001. Retrieved January 09, 2014 from Encyclopedia.com :http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3468301237.html 7. Brewer, P. (2004) ‘‘Frederick Engels: The Origin of The Family, Private Property, and the State’’ from http://readingfromtheleft.com/PDF/EngelsOrigin.pdf 8. Kabeer, N. (2012) ‘‘ Wo men’s economic empowerment and inclusive growth: labor markets and enterprise development ’’ 9. Knaus, K. (2007) ‘‘ Turkish Women: A Century Of Change ’’ 10. Iternational Labor Office, Geneva (2010) ‘‘ Women in Labor Markets: Measuring progress and identifying challenges ’’ 11. Freedman, J. (2001) ‘‘ Feminism’’ Open University Press 12. www.sociology.org.uk 13. www.dosomething.org/background-sweatshops

Themonstersaredueonmaplestreet

Once the object flies overhead, the machinery and technology in the neighborhood begins to fail; the cars won't start, the phones don't work, and the power grid for the homes goes dark. Though there may be many different messages to interpret with this particular episode, I believe the main one to leap out at us is this: if technology fails us, we resort to our primal instincts and chaos ensues. This is evident when a young boy in the neighborhood hypothesizes that the object overhead is some sort of alien craft, and that the aliens won't let any of them leave the neighborhood.The boy goes on to mention that in a comic book that he read, only the aliens sent down before the spacecraft would be able to leave the town and that they would look and act just like one of them (humans). I would personally find this idea a farce, but the neighborhood entertains this idea after a man disappears to investigate the next block over and doesn't return for hours. At this point, mass hysteria begin s to take hold.The neighborhood becomes suspicious of their neighbors and begins to ostracize one another to figure out who the invaders are. When one neighbors car starts on its own, the mob is quick to question why his car works but theirs don't. Another neighbor points out that she often sees the man standing out in his yard late at night, gazing up into the sky as if he were looking for something. Accusations continue to be passed around, with each neighbor pointing out something suspicious about the other.Are we beginning to see the theme here? As night falls, paranoia has taken over. Though some might argue that it would likely take more than one day for neighbors to act so rashly, its easy to e that in this confusion of an inexplicable event how effectively The Twilight Zone fast-forwards the like-minded mob mentality to communicate the episode's message. A figure appears in the street, and one man–thinking it to be some sort of invader-?raises a gun and kills the figu re for all the mob to see.It's revealed to us that the figure was no monster at all, just the innocent neighbor that went to investigate the other blocks only couple of hours earlier. At this point, the mob accuses the man who shot their neighbor that he's the real monster-?maybe he wanted them dead all along. They throw stones at him and more chaos ensues. At the end of the episode the camera pans out to a spacecraft perched on a hill overlooking the neighborhood. Two aliens look on as the neighborhood rips itself apart.They discuss how easily man can be manipulated when you take away their technology and how quickly they turn on one other in times of great panic. The episode concludes with them mentioning how easy it will be to conquer the species with this knowledge in hand. Personally I think The Twilight Zone did an excellent job of showcasing how quickly we can turn on one another in times of crisis. In my own experience with the military, I've been in several situations where something went wrong and people began looking for others to blame.

The History of Photography †Art History Research Paper (300 Level Course)

The History of Photography – Art History Research Paper (300 Level Course) Free Online Research Papers The History of Photography Art History Research Paper(300 Level Course) What is a portrait? This is a difficult question to answer in photography. John Gere defined a portrait as â€Å"’an image which the artist is engaged with the personality of his sitter and is preoccupied with his or her characterization as an individual’† (Campbell 1). The common perception of a portrait is the representation of the subject’s likeness, however, this statement is comprehensive with deception. In this essay I will explore the meaning of the portrait in order to understand what a portrait is in photography. What constitutes a portrait? In order to understand the meaning of a portrait, we must define what makes a portrait. The dictionary defines the portrait from a historical perspective: â€Å"por’trait, the likeness of a person painted or described from life† (Highroads Dictionary 382). Similarly, I always believed a portrait is a picture of a person. Simple as it may appear to be, it is not true, it is far too complex. There may be a person in the picture but it is not necessarily a portrait of that person. The portrait is not restricted to facial features and could embody the essence of an individual through bodily gestures. The image may appear to be a portrait but lacks the essence of the individual. A portrait is a deliberate attempt to capture something of that human being (Sliwinski). As long as there is an essence the person is emitting from the photograph, it may be referred to as a portrait. If there is an absence of characterization from the person, the portrait of that person does not exist. Typically the face coincides with the portrait because â€Å"the head, and especially the face, are of paramount importance in recognition, and the eyes, nose and mouth are particular interest† (Campbell 10). The face is what defines us from each other and allows us to easily show expression by externalizing the internal. A portrait is a â€Å"mirror-image – not as we see ourselves, but as others see us† (Clarke 103). This is a difficult concept to accept because humans want to be in control in how others view them. A portrait, therefore, is a portrayal of our essence through our physical beings. The aim of a portrait is to capture a true representation of a person without personal interference from the artist or the sitter. This is an idealistic goal. It is unlikely that the sitter will not portray his or her own desired perception of himself for the camera nor is it likely that the artist will not unconsciously portray an image of themselves unto the subject. Everyone has an image of how they view themselves that contradicts how they are seen by the world. The camera conflicts with this personal battle of revealing. In Campbell’s article questioning what a portrait is, she notes that a person adjusts their features prior to viewing their own reflection which denotes a poor indication of their appearance. She continues this analogy to â€Å"someone facing a camera will normally assume an artificial expression, a ‘camera face’, and the degree of success with which he does so will determine whether or not he may be called photogenic† (8). We have all encountered the ‘photogenic’ term and the connotations that are attached to this loose definition of the ability to fool the camera. Either you are photogenic or you envy those who are photogenic. People often personify the camera in comments such as ‘the camera doesn’t like me’ or ‘the camera lies’ if they fear that the camera will not satisfy how they want to see themselves. In doing this, they are manifesting their own frustration for not being able to fool the camera into showing them how they want to look and not as they look. Photogenic people are too being fooled because it is not necessarily how they are seen by others. In viewing their beautiful portrayal of themselves, they are encouraged to believe that is how they are at every moment. The camera lies indeed. It is difficult to say one has captured the true likeness of someone once they have taken their photograph. A portrait is the physical manifestation of vanity. People want to be seen at their very best even if it goes beyond who they truly are. If it is not in their physical appearance, it is in their possessions, in their occupation, in their social status, or in their wealth. This was apparent in portraitures of the past. Only those of great wealth, status, or close association to the artist had their portrait painted. Their idea of themselves consumed the painting and distorted the likeness of the individual. People were painted to show power, beauty, and status. Any aspect they despised of themselves, or they wished upon themselves, were altered for their satisfaction often to the point where they were unrecognizable. Graham Clarke wrote: â€Å"’at virtually every level, and within every context the portrait photograph is fraught with ambiguity’† (Clarke 101). The truthfulness of photography is further challenged in portraiture where even the subject is deceptive t o the truth. We pose whenever the camera appears assuming to be something we are not (Sliwinski). The desire to control how one is seen is continuously a part of human nature. We want to be seen at our best at all times, so we camouflage our flaws and hide our weaknesses. We, as humans, do not want to be perceived as anything less than we think of ourselves. It is in human nature to be sensitive to the judgements of others and vanity allows us to guard ourselves against ridicule from ourselves. Not only are we conscious of how we look physically, we are conscious of how we are represented: â€Å"just as sitters may be idealized to make them look more beautiful than they really are, so they may be falsely characterized as more successful, discriminating, heroic, intelligent or virtuous than they may in fact be† Everyone wants to be perceived by others as the ideological image they have of themselves. It is this desire that causes us to sit tall in front of the camera, pull back our shoulders, suck in our stomachs, open our eyes wider, or countless other techniques to wilfully control the outcome of the camera’s eye. We are all guilty of trying to fool the camera from capturing us as we are, whether it would be fixing our hair or tugging at our clothes to get that perfect image. We are vain creatures who are fully aware of the camera. Digital photography is an improvement to the portrait. People are now able to control how they are seen and remembered by others. They can delete and alter their images until they have collected the perfect depiction of how they want to see themselves. In other words, digital photography is a tool for vanity discretely disguised as a tool for photography available for everyone. I too am guilty of deleting the â€Å"bad† pictures of myself that did not meet the expectations I have for seeing myself. Digital photography has made it possible to eliminate or retouch photographs to elude perfection. It poses a greater risk of likeness distortion in the future because the ever-so-perfect captions of the self has been through a screening process and does not resemble the true likeness of the self. The way we will be remembered is not how we were but how we wanted to be remembered, a false likeness of ourselves. Photographs of people presented by the media are not portraits. They may fulfil the requirements of a portrait but the essence of the person is absent. In fashion photography, the personal self is empty because the public expectations of how this person is desired to look overrides and destroys the essence of the subject. Celebrity portraits are an offspring of fashion photography: the portrait becomes how we want to view this person from an idealized perspective, not how they are viewed. Campbell emphasizes that â€Å"images of beautiful people continually present problems of classification† (Campbell 2). The reason for this is that the beauty of the person is idealized to the point of surrealism and â€Å"these can become difficult to distinguish from true portraits† (Campbell 2). The problems that arise from this are that people become easily fooled as to what beauty is and try to conform themselves into that depiction of beauty. This causes them be conscientious of their appearance at all times and robs their essence from being imprinted into their own portraits. They are both deceiving themselves from their true likeness and deceiving others into believing that it is their own likeness. In portraits â€Å"it is difficult to know exactly what one looks like or to judge a likeness of oneself† (Campbell 8) because there is a false presentation of oneself. There is an awkward relationship between the viewer and the subject in the photograph when looking at portraits without a sense of the internal. There is an invisible barrier established when the subject is aware of the camera and distorts his or her physical appearance to resemble the likeness of themselves in their mind, not the likeness they actually are. One would â€Å"need to probe the images for any hint of an internal, and private self† (Clarke 114). If the viewer needs to hunt for the sense of self from the individual, the artist has not done their job. It is the job of the photographer to capture a piece of the person that defines a part of their true self. Inge Morath underlines the purpose of a photographic portrait and the role of the photographer: a good portrait â€Å"catches a moment of stillness within the daily flows of things, when the inside of a person has a chance to come through† (Clarke 101). It is one of the most difficult things to do because people do not trust the camera to reveal themselves in a flattering manner they wish to be portrayed. It takes great skill both artistically and socially to produce a portrait that satisfies all definitions of what a portrait is in photography. What is a portrait? A portrait is a moment of time where the true essence of a person can be revealed without distortion from the subject or artist. Campbell, Lorne: ‘Portraiture’, The Grove Dictionary of Art Online, (Oxford University Press). Clarke, Graham. The Photograph. New York: The Oxford University Press, 1997. Sliwinski, Sharon. â€Å"The Portrait in Photography† Portraits. Ontario College of Art and Design. October 14, 2004. Highroads Dictionary: Pronouncing and Etymologogical. Toronto: Thomas Nelson and Sons ltd, 1951. ed. 1960. Research Papers on The History of Photography - Art History Research Paper (300 Level Course)Analysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementTrailblazing by Eric AndersonEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenHip-Hop is ArtWhere Wild and West MeetUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesThree Concepts of PsychodynamicComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia

Traditional Dye Plants of Manipur Essays

Traditional Dye Plants of Manipur Essays Traditional Dye Plants of Manipur Essay Traditional Dye Plants of Manipur Essay Essay Topic: Purple Hibiscus TraditionalSanjeev Rana Knitwear Department, National Institute of Fashion Technology Abstract Manipur is one of the richest states in plant biodiversity in the North Eastern states of India. Different ethnic groups, residing in Manipur before the introduction of the chemical dyes into the state, used the dyes extracted from the plants. Women in Manipur practice dyeing using varieties of plant leaves, flowers and tree barks. The natural dyes were obtained from plants and have been used by weavers for imparting different shades of color to different clothes, bamboo baskets, flowerpots, fishing nets, etc. There are more than 50 plants species in Manipur, which are used as dyes right from ancient times, before chemical dyes were introduced in the state. This review is an attempt to describe the dyes extracted from plants by the Meitei Community of Manipur. The traditional methods of extraction as well as the plant parts used in the extraction have also been mentioned briefly. These locally extracted dyes are still used for dyeing of handloom products of the state, which are famous all over the world for their indigenous designs and quality. MANIPUR Manipur is one of the state of the eight sister states of northeast India. The state capital of Manipur is Imphal. The state lies at latitude of 23Â °83’N 25Â °68’N and longitude of 93Â °03’E 94Â °78’E. The total area covered by the state is 22327 sq. km and the total population of the state is 22,93,896 [4]. The state is bounded by Nagaland in the North, Mizoram in the South, Assam in the west, and by the borders of the country Myanmar in the east. The state has its own emblem, bird and animal. The State Emblem is Kangla Sha. The State Bird is Nongin and the State Animal is Sangai [4]. [pic] Fig. 1. Location map of Manipur 1. Dye Yielding Plants The process of dyeing was started during the reign of King Taothing-Mang (264- 364 AD). The system of dyeing progressed during the reign of King Yanglao Keiphaba (969-984 AD), who introduced the beautiful textile Hij Mayek (later known as Hijam mayek) colourfully dyed, and worn by the women folk of Manipur. Some plants, which were used by the people of Manipur for dyeing are: Table 1 |S. No. Scientific name |Local name |Description |Use | | | | |A middle-sized tree with brown bark. It is a rare plant | | |1. |Acacia catechu Wild |Kabokhajee |occurring wild along the border with Myanmar. A fast |Preparation of local | | |(Mimosaceae) [1]. | |reddish black dye is obtained from the heartwood of the |inks and dyeing cotton| | | | |plant by boiling in water. Small chips of the heartwood |fabrics. | | | | |are boiled in water for about one hour. Then the dye is | | | | | |concentrated by evaporation in iron vessels. | | | | | | |Used as adhesive for | |2. |Achyranthes aspera Linn. |Khujumpere |Whole plant is first ried, burnt to ashes and is mixed |various colors and | | |(Amaranthaceae) [2]. | |with water. This dye is |making the color | | | | | |brighter. | | | | |A middle-sized evergreen tree found wild in Tamenglong | | |3. |Amoora spectabilis Miq. |Oongang |district. As the local name suggests, a pale scarlet |Used for dyeing cotton| | |(Meliaceae) [1]. | |color is obtained from the hardwood by boiling in water. |fabrics. | | | | |Acids and alkalies are added before use. | | | | | |A slender tall palm with annulated stems. Commonly | | |4. |Areca catechu Linn |Kwa pambi |cultivated in the Jiribam sub-division. A copper red dye |Used for Painting | | |(Arecaceae) [1]. | |is obtained from the nuts. The crushed nuts are mixed | | | | | |with water and allowed to stand for a few hours. On | | | | | |adding lime, a copper red dye is obtained. | | | | | | | | |5. Averrhoea carambela Linn. |Rupuan thai | |Used as a good | | |(Oxalidaceae) [2] | |Mature fruits are taken and its juice is squeezed into |adhesive to the | | | | |the water containing tub. |Ureirom (Bixa | | | | | |orellana) dye. | | | | | | | | | |A wild, glabrous twinning herb of common occurrence. A | | |6. |Basella alba Linn |Uroksumbal |deep purple color is obtained from the ripe fruits of |Used for dyeing | | |(Basellaceae) [1]. | |this plant. Different colors can also be obtained from |fabrics and in | | | | |the leaves and stems. The dye is generally extracted with|painting. | | | | |water. | | | | | |A moderately sized deciduous tree, commonly found in the | | |7. |Bauhinia purpurea Linn |Chingthrao |Manipur Valley, sometimes cultivated for the beautiful |Used for Painting | | |(Caesalpiniaceae) [1]. |angangba |flowers. A rose-purple dye is obtained from the fresh | | | | | |flowers. The fresh petals are directly applied on the | | | | | |cloth or surface to be colored. | | | | | |A shrub of very rare occurrence. Grows wild in Ukhrul | | |8. |Berberis manipurana Ahr |Oonapu |district. As the local name suggests, a beautiful yellow |Used for dyeing | | |(Berberidaceae) [1]. |dye is obtained from the stem and roots by boiling in |mulberry silk | | | | |water. Acids and alkalis can be added for concentrating |fabrics(locally known | | | | |the dye. |as Kabrang). | | | | | | | |9. |Bixa orellana Linn |Ureirom |A small evergreen tree, commonly cultivated in the |Used for dyeing | | |(Bixaceae) [1]. |homestead compounds. A pale red dye is obtained from the |locally made cotton | | | | |arils of the seed. The seeds are soaked in cold water to |towels and | | | | |extract the dye. |loin-clothes and also | | | | | |in painting. | | | | |A branched annual herb, commonly cultivated during the | | |10. Carthamus tinctorius Linn |Kushum lei |summer season. Either a golden yel low dye (locally known |Used for dyeing of | | |(Asteraceae)[1]. | |as Sana Phige Machu) or a pink red dye can be extracted |cotton and silk | | | | |from the flowers using different extraction techniques. |clothes and also in | | | | |The fresh petals are wrapped with the leaves of |painting | | | | |Stachyphrynium imbricatum (Roxb. K. Schum. (Local | | | | | |name-Leihoura) and then allowed to ferment for a few | | | | | |days. The fermented petals are mixed with water and | | | | | |filtered. The yellow dye so obtained is concentrated by | | | | | |boiling. Addition of common salts results in a golden | | | | | |yellow dye, while a pink red dye can be obtained by | | | | | |adding alkalies obtained from the ashes of Achyranthes | | | | | |aspera Linn. (Local name-Khujum pere). The flowers are | | | | | |offered to God on Manipuri New Year’s Day (Cheiraoba). | | | | | | | |11. |Celosia argentea Linn |Haorei angangba |An erect glabrous annual, commonly cultivated in the |Used for painting. | | |(Amaranthaceae) [1]. | |gardens throughout the state. A pink red dye is obtained | | | | | |from the flowers. | | | | | |An annual climber, commonly cultivated for the flowers in| | |12. Clitoria ternatea Linn |Aprajita |the Manipur Valley. A blue dye is obtained from the dried|Used only for | | |(Papilionaceae) [1]. | |flowers. The dried petals are powdered and then mixed |painting. | | | | |with cold water. The mixture is allowed to stand for 3-4 | | | | | |hr and filtered. | | | | | |A glabrous shrub of common occurrence in wastelands and | | |13. Clerodendrum bracteatum |Kuthap |river banks throughout the state. A pale green dye is |Used for painting. | | |Wall. Ex Walp. | |obtained from the leaves. The fresh leaves are crushed | | | |(Verbenaceae) [1]. | |and boiled in water until the dye is fairly concentrated. | | | | | |After cooling, acidic dye mordants are added before use. | | | | |A middle sized deciduous tree, grows wild in Tamenglong | | |14. |Cordia grandis Forst |Lamuk |district. A black dye is obtained from the fruit and bark|Used for painting. | | |(Boraginaceae) [1]. | |of this plant. The dye is extracted in cold water. | | | | | |An annual with rhizomatous underground stem, cultivated | | |15. Curcuma domestica Valeton |Yaingang |throughout the state. A golden yellow dye is obtained |Used for dyeing and | | |(Zingiberaceae) [1]. | |from the underground rhizomes. The dye can be extracted |painting. | | | | |either in hot or cold water containing ashes extracted by| | | | | |burning Zanthoxylum acanth opodium DC. (Local name- | | | | | |Mukthrubi). By adding lime water or alkalies, a brick red| | | | | |dye could also be obtained. | | | | | |A leafless, twinning parasite, commonly found in the | | |16. |Cuscuta reflexa Roxb |Uri napu |Manipur Valley. A yellow dye from the whole plant by |Used for dyeing of | | |(Cuscutaceae) [1]. | |crushing in cold water. cotton clothes and in | | | | | |painting. | | | | |A tall tree of common occurrence along the Indo- Myanmar | | |17. |Dipterocarpus turbinatus |Yangou |border at Moreh and Lokchao. A whitish dye is obtained |Used for painting. | | |Gaertn. f. | |from the wood by boiling in water. The same dye could | | | |(Dipterocarpaceae) [1]. |also be obtained from the sap of the plant. | | | | | |A small deciduous tree, very common in the hills of | | |18. |Emblica officinalis Gaertn |Heigru |Manipur. A reddish black dye is obtained from the bark |Used for dyeing of | | |(Euphorbiaceae) [1]. | |and fruits. The dye is extracted by crushing the bark or |fishing nets. | | | | |fruits in col d water and allowed to stand for 48 hrs. The| | | | | |dye is concentrated by boiling and adding common salt. | | | | | |A deciduous tree with strong incurved prickles, common in| | |19. |Erythrina stricta Roxb |Kurao angangba |the Manipur valley and sometimes planted in the homestead|Used for painting. | | |(Papilionaceae) [1]. | |compounds. A coral red dye is obtained from the dried | | | | | |flowers. The dried and powdered flowers are added to | | | | | |sufficient amount of cold water and allowed to stand for | | | | | |a few hours. Slake lime and common salts are added as | | | | | |mordants | | | | | | | | |20. Garcinia xanthochymus |Puangthai |Fruits are cut into pieces and soaked in water or cut |Used as adhesive to | | |Hook. f. | |pieces are taken in a clean piece of cloth and squeezed |different dyes. | | |(Guttiferae/Clusiaceae) [2]| |into the water. The prepared liquid is | | | | | |A large shrub, commonly cultivated in the gardens | | |21. |Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn|Juba kushum |throughout the state. A red dye obtained from the fresh |Used for painting | | |(Malvaceae) [1]. | |flowers. The petals are is directly applied to the | | | | | |surface to be colored. In ancient times, the petals were | | | | | |rubbed on the pages of hand written books to protect them| | | | | |from insects. | | | | |A large clumped herb, grows wild in marshy places | | |22. |Iris bakeri Wall |Kombirei |particularly at Lamphel. A deep blue color is obtained |Used for painting. | | |(Iridaceae) [1]. | |from the dried flowers. The flowers are also offered to | | | | | |God on Manipuri New Year’s Day (Cheiraoba). | | | | | | | |23. |Knoxia roxburghii (Spreng. )|Yachubi | |Practiced by different| | |M. A. Rau (Rubiaceae) [2] | |Leaves are chewed by the children to color their teeth |ethnic groups of | | | | |(greenish/brownish). |people of the state | | |Mallotus philippensis | |A small evergreen tree grows wild throughout the valley. | |24. |Muell-Arg (Euphorbiaceae) |Ureirom laba |A crimson red dye is obtained from the fruits. The sun |Used for dyeing silk | | |[1]. | |dried fruits are soaked in cold water to extract the dye. |fabrics. | | | | |A large deciduous tree with very stout branches. A rare | | |25. |Melanorrhoea usitata Wall |Kheu |plant available only in Manipur along the border with |Used for dyeing and | | |(Anacardiaceae) [1]. |Myanmar. An oily blackish dye is obtained from the wood |painting. | | | | |and roots. The crushed and cut plant parts are boiled in | | | | | |water for about25 minutes and cooled down. Acidic dye | | | | | |mordants and common salts are to be added for | | | | | |concentrating the dye. | | | | |A weak, erect under shrub, very common in the hills | | |26. |Osbeckia chinensis Linn |Yachubi |surrounding Manipur Valley. A violet dye is obtained from|Used in olden days for| | |(Melastomataceae) [1]. | |the fruits. The crushed fruits are soaked in local made |coloring teeth. | | | | |wine or country liquor for best results. | | | | |A medium- sized, unarmed tree with spreading branches, | | |27. |Parkia timoriana |Yongchak |very common throughout the state. Also extensively |The filtrate is used | | |(A. DC. )Merr. (Mimosaceae) | |cultivated for the edible fruits. A reddish dye is |for dyeing all types | | |[1]. | |obtained from the stem and fruits. Pieces of stem and |of fishing nets | | | | |outer green covers of the fruits are soaked in cold water| | | | | |in earthen vessels for 24 hrs. The people of the state | | | | | |use the fruits as delicious food item during winter | | | | | |season. | | | | |A large evergreen tree common in the hills of Manipur. A | | |28. |Pasania pachyphylla (Kurz. )|Kuhi |reddish dye is obtained from the bark. Fresh bark pieces |Used for dyeing | | |Scott (Fagaceae) [1]. | |are soaked in cold water for about 48 hrs. Acidic dye |fishing nets and | | | | |mordants are added before use. cotton fabrics. | | | | |A climber with cordate, elliptic leaves, cultivated | | |29. |Piper betle Linn |Pana mana/Kwa mana|mainly in the Jiribam sub-division. A deep reddish dye is|Used for painting. | | |(Piperaceae) [1]. | |obtained by crushing the fresh leaves along with the | | | | | |seeds of Areca catechu Linn. and lime in cold water. | | | | | | | |30. |Plumbago indica Linn. |Mukaklei |Flowers are collected in large amount and its petals are |Used for dyeing fabric| | |(Plumbaginaceae) [2]. | |crushed and soaked in water. Clothes or yarn threads |and yarn. | | | | |dipped into this liquid acquire pale red color. This is | | | | | |not regularly used, since it involves collection of large| | | | | |amount of flowers. | | | | | | | | |31. |Polygonum chinense Linn. |Angom Yensil |Crushed whole plant is soaked in water for 2-3 days and |It is used as adhesive| | |(Polygonaceae) [2]. | |the liquid is used as dye. |for dark color. | | | |A reddish brown dye is obtained from the young fruits. | | |32. |Psidium guajava Linn |Pungdon |The dye is extracted by crushing the fruit in cold water. |Used for painting. | | |(Myrtaceae) [1]. | | | | | | | |A shrub with 4-angled branches, cultivated in the | | |33. |Punica granatum Linn |Kaphoi |homestead compounds in the valley areas. Pieces of the |Used for dyeing | | |(Punicaceae) [1]. | |fruit after removal of the seeds are soaked in cold water|fishing nets. | | | | |to extract the dye. | | | | | |The bark is cut into pieces and soaked in a pitcher | | |34. |Quercus dealbata (Fagaceae)|Shahi |containing water. This plant is used as a substitute for |Used for dyeing of | | |[2]. | |kuhi (Quercus spp. plant. The dye obtained from this |cloths and yarn. | | | | |plant is considered inferior to the ‘kuhi’ dye. | | | | | |A climber with quadrangular stem, grows wild in the | | |35. |Rubia cordifolia Linn |Moyum pambi |forests adjoining Myanmar. A beautiful deep pink dye is |Used for dyeing and | | |(Rubiaceae) [1]. | |obtained from the stem and roots of this plant. The dye |painting. | | | |is extracted by crushing the roots or stem in cold water. | | | | | |Acidic dye mordants are added before dyeing. | | | | | |A much branched, armed shrub, found wild in the | | |36. |Solanum ferox Linn |Khamu |wastel ands and forests. A deep chocolate colored dye is |Used only for printing| | |(Solanaceae) [1]. | |obtained from the mature fruits. The fruits are crushed |of designs and | | | | |and soaked in water for 3 hrs. An equal volume of the |patterns on cotton | | | | |juice extracted from Achyranthes aspera Linn. (Local name|and silk fabrics. | | | | |– Khujum pere) is added to the fruit extract. After | | | | | |adding alkalies, the extract is concentrated by boiling. | | | | |A glabrous shrub often cultivated for the dye in the | | |37. |Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) |Kum |Manipur valley. Brilliant blue and black dyes are |Dyes extracted are | | |Imlay syn. S. | |obtained from the leaves and stem of this plant. Both |most popularly used | | |flaccidifolius Nees | |fresh and dry plant parts can be used for the extraction. |for dyeing of costly | | |(Acanthaceae) [1]. |According to the choice of |loin clothes(locally | | | | |color, the dye is extracted by different methods such as |known as Phanek Mayek | | | | |crushing with water, by fermentation or by boiling. For |Naiba(Kumjingbi, Kum | | | | |extracting blue dye, the fresh leaves are soaked in cold |luppi and Higok | | | | |water for 3 days in airtight earthen vessels. The dye is |kumballei)) of the | | | | |then concentrated by boiling after the addition of common|womenfolk of the | | | | |salts. For black dye, air dried leaves are pounded in a |state. | | | | |mortar and then fermented in airtight earthen vessels for| | | | | |3 days. After adding dye mordants, the extract is | | | | | |concentrated by boiling. | | | | | |An annual, cultivated throughout the state for the | | |38. |Tagetes patula Linn |Sanarei |variously colored flowers. The dye is generally extracted|Used in painting. | | |(Asteraceae) [1]. | |from the dried flowers. The color of the dye depends upon| | | | | |the color of the flowers but generally yellow and golden | | | | | |yellow dyes are extracted. | | | | | |A large tree found in the forests along the border with | | |39. |Tectona grandis Linn. F. |Chingshu |Myanmar, sometimes cultivated. A maroon colored dye is |Used for painting. | | |(Verbenaceae) [1]. |obtained from the leaves while a deep brownish color is | | | | | |obtained from the barks. Either the bark or leaves are | | | | | |first crushed and then soaked in water for 2 hrs. After | | | | | |adding acids or alkalies, the dye is concentrated by | | | | | |boiling. | | | | |A large deciduous tree, grows wild in the Barak Drainage | | |40. |Terminalia citrine Roxb. Ex|Manahee |forest, sometimes cultivated. A blackish dye is obtained |Used for dyeing and | | |Flem (Combretaceae) [1]. | |from the bark. The dye is extracted just by soaking or |painting. | | | | |boiling the bark in water. | | | | | |An quatic perennial herb. Common in marshy areas and | | |41. |Zizania caduciflora |Ishing Kambong |lakes. A black dye is obtained from the culms infected by|Used for dyeing and | | |Hand. -Mazz (Poaceae) [1]. | |a fungus, Melanopsichium |painting. | | | | |esculentum P. Hen. The dye is extracted in cold water. | | Besides the above mentioned 41 species, there are several other plants such as Cascabela thevetia (Linn. Lippold (Local name-Utonglei), Datura stramonium Linn. (Local name-Sangoidak amuba), Impatiens balsamina Linn. (Local name-Khujang), Indigofera tinctoria Linn. (Local name-Neem macha), Ipomoea quamoclit Linn. (Local name-Nunggarei angangba), Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Local name-Thambal) and Nymphaea pubescens Willd. (Local name-Tharo) which are used for the extraction of dyes [1]. 2. Plants used as source of Alkaline Dye Mordants The people of the state also use several plants species as mordant for dyes. These alkaline dye mordants are extracted from the fresh plants or from the ashes of the plant after burning. The ashes are added to water and then filtered. The filtrate is used as alkaline dye mordants. Some of the plants, which are used as alkaline dye mordants, are: Table 2 | Name of the plant |Family |Local Name | | | |Khujum pere | |Achyranthes aspera Linn [1]. Amaranthaceae | | | |Araceae |Hongu | |Alocasia macrorrhiza Schott [1]. | | | | |Zingiberaceae |Pullei | |Alpinia nigra (Gaertn. ) Burtt [1]. | | | |Asteraceae |Uchi sumbal | |Eclipta prostrata Linn [1]. | | | | |Moraceae |Ashi heibong | |Ficus hispida Linn. f. 1] | | | | |Zingiberaceae |Ingenllei | |Hedychium marginatum C. B. Cl [1]. | | | | |Zingiberaceae |Loklei | |Hedychium stenopetalum Lodd [1]. | | | |Musaceae |Laphu | |Musa paradisiaca Linn [1]. | | | | |Solanaceae |Hidak mana | |Nicotiana tabacum Linn [1]. | | | |Papilionaceae |Hawai tharak | |Pisum sativum Linn [1]. | | | 3. Plants used as source of Acidic Dye M ordants Several acidic fruits have also been used a sources of acidic dye mordants. The choice of fruit depends upon the colour of the dye. Some of the commonly used acidic fruits are: Table 3 |Name of the plant |Family |Local Name | | |Bromeliaceae |Kihom | |Ananas comosus (Linn. )Merr [1]. | | | |Averrhoa carambola Linn [1]. Averrhoaceae |Heinoujom | | |Rutaceae |Heiribob | |Citrus latipes (Swingle) Tanaka [1] | | | | |Rutaceae |Champra | |Citrus limon (Linn. ) Burm. . [1] | | | | |Rutaceae |Heijang | |Citrus medica Linn [1]. | | | | |Euphorbiaceae |Heigru | |Emblica officinalis Gaertn [1]. | | | |Clusiaceae |Heibung | |Garcinia pedunculata Roxb [1]. | | | | |Anacardiaceae |Heinou | |Mangifera indica Linn [1]. | | | |Anacardiaceae |Heimang | |Rhus hookeri Sahni Bahadur [1] | | | Table 4: Different plants give different shades of color. Ten species are mainly used as main dye | S. No. |Plant |Colour | | |Bixa orellana Linn. Red | |1 | | | | |Carthamus tinctorius Linn. |Pink | |2 | | | |3 |Clerodendrum odoratum D. Don |Green | | |Curcuma domestica Valeton |Yellow | |4 | | | | |Knoxia roxburghii (Spreng. M. A. Rau |Green | |5 | | | | |Parkia roxburghii G. Don |Brown | |6 | | | | |Pasania pachyphylla |Dark Brown, Black | |7 | | | | |Plumbago indica Linn. Red | |8 | | | | |Quercus dealbata |Brown | |9 | | | |Strobilanthes flaccidifolius Nees |Black | |10 | | | | |Tectona grandis Linn. f. |Red | |11 | | | CONCLUSION From the above account, it can be observed that people of Manipur, still extensively use dyes extracted from plants for dyeing of their handloom products. Some of these dyes are also used in fine arts. So far no systematic investigation was carried out to catalog all the dye yielding plants of the state. The specialty of these locally extracted plant dyes is that the synthetic dyes cannot match the particular hue and chroma of these dyes. The people of Manipur can produce these dyes in large scale, commercially by opening factories and can compete with chemical dyes, which are harmful from environmental point of view. To create awareness of availability and promotion of fabrics items created with natural dyes, suitable promotion and publicity need to be launched. In order to revive the art and to promote the use of natural dyes, it is essential that research and development work on such dyes be placed on an organized footing. It can, thus, be concluded that the study will serve as a source for socio-environmental development of the people of Manipur in particular and for the Nation in general. REFERENCES . H Manoranjan Sharma et all (A Radhapyari Devi and B Manihar Sharma), Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, Vol. 4(1), January 2005, 42 2. G Akimpou et all (K Rongmei and P S Yadava), Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, Vol. 4(1), January 2005, 34 3. Lunalisa Potsangbam et all (Swapana Ningombam Warjeet S Laitonjam), Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, Vol. 7(1), January 2008, 142 4. manipuronline. in/Profile/Geography/ (accessed on 2nd December 2010)

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